Blastocyst splitting - see twinning.

Cloning - The process of creating a living organism or embryo that has the same genetic composition as an already existing or previously existing individual. Most discussion about human cloning refers to the procedure known as "somatic cell nuclear transfer." Other cloning methods include parthenogenesis and twinning. See also somatic cell nuclear transfer, reproductive cloning, research cloning, parthenogenesis, and twinning.

For more information see [ Technologies >> Human Cloning ].

Embryo cloning - see research cloning.

Eugenics - improving a race or breed by controlling reproduction. Eugenics was a popular and scientific movement in the first part of the twentieth century, with such famous proponents as U.S. Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. and President Theodore Roosevelt. In an effort to improve the human gene pool, individuals with traits considered desirable were encouraged to reproduce; those with traits considered undesirable were discouraged from having children. Thousands were involuntarily sterilized. Eugenic ideologies in the United States resulted in social legislation to keep racial and ethnic groups separate, to restrict immigration from southern and eastern Europe, and to sterilize people considered "genetically unfit." The ideas of the American eugenics movement were models for the Nazis, whose eugenic ideologies culminated in the Holocaust. See also techno-eugenics and genism.

The Cold Spring Harbor DNA Learning Center maintains a comprehensive and engaging website on eugenics.
http://www.eugenicsarchive.org/

Eugenic tourism - the prospect that people may travel to other countries where cloning and inheritable genetic modification is legal in order to undergo a procedure which is not legal or morally acceptable in their home country. Concerns about the development of eugenic tourism are part of the impetus for a worldwide ban on reproductive cloning and inheritable genetic modification. See also eugenics.

Food and Drug Administration (FDA) - The FDA is a part of the executive branch of the federal government. Its mission is to promote and protect the public health by facilitating the entry of safe products to market. FDA also monitors existing products for continued safety. The agency is mandated by law to consider only safety and efficacy, and not to consider social, political, or moral issues.

For more information: [ Policies >> US Federal and State Policies >> Federal Regulatory Agencies ]

Gene - a hereditary unit that is composed of a sequence of DNA and occupies a specific position on a DNA strand. Generally the term describes any genetic determinant. Genes can exist in alternate forms termed alleles. The genetic material is organized into chromosomes that are located within the nucleus of a cell.

Gene therapy - the therapeutic or medical application of somatic genetic transfer. Clinical trials of gene therapy have been underway since 1990. Though results have been disappointing so far, many hope it will eventually  facilitate treatment of many diseases. See also somatic genetic transfer.

Genetic engineering (also called genetic modification) - the process of intentionally altering the genetic composition of organisms. See inheritable genetic modification and somatic genetic transfer.

Genism – the belief that genes are deterministic of distinctive human characteristics and abilities, and that it is therefore appropriate to make decisions based on perceived genetic differences among individuals or groups.

See George J. Annas, "Genism, Racism, and the Prospect of Genetic Genocide," presented at the World Conference Against Racism (September 2001) http://www.bumc.bu.edu/www/sph/lw/pvl/genism.htm

In-vitro fertilization (IVF) - technique for the creation of a human embryo outside a woman’s body. Eggs are harvested from a woman’s body after she has taken drugs to stimulate egg production, placed in laboratory culture dishes, and exposed to sperm.  If fertilization occurs, the resulting embryo is allowed to divide several times, and then placed back in a woman's uterus to develop into a baby. IVF embryos can also be frozen for later implantation. See also twinning and preimplantation genetic diagnosis.

Inheritable genetic modification (IGM) (also called germline genetic modification, or germline engineering) - genetic modification of germline cells (eggs and sperm). Viral vectors are used to insert new genes into eggs, sperm, or early embryos. As a result these genetic modifications are in each cell of the body of the resulting child, and are passed down through the generations. Inheritable genetic modification affects the human genetic pool rather than only individuals.

For more information: [ Technologies >> Inheritable Genetic Modification (IGM) ]

Large-offspring syndrome - a condition often seen in cloned cattle and sheep in which fetuses grow much larger than their normal size in the mother's uterus and often have organ defects. It poses serious health risks to the mother and to the baby, often resulting in the death of one or both. See also reproductive cloning.

A highly technical yet informative review of the causes of large-offspring syndrome:
http://www.jrf-journals.org.uk/ror/003/ror0030155.pdf

National Institutes of Health (NIH) - the federal agency whose mission is to “acquire new knowledge to help prevent, detect, diagnose, and treat disease and disability, from the rarest genetic disorder to the common cold” by funding and conducting medical research.

For more information visit the NIH on the web:
http://www.nih.gov/

Ooplasmic transfer (also called cytoplasmic transfer) - an experimental fertility technique that involves injecting a small amount of cytoplasm (the substance that surrounds the nucleus of a cell) from eggs taken from women known to be fertile into "potentially compromised" eggs of women whose difficulty in establishing pregnancies is presumed to be due to defects in the ooplasm of their eggs. That modified egg is then fertilized with sperm, and implanted into the womb of a woman attempting to achieve pregnancy.

Ooplasm contains organelles called mitochondria that carry their own DNA (mtDNA). Children born from eggs into which ooplasm has been transferred are thus likely to have mitochondrial genes from both the donor and recipient eggs. Some fertility practitioners have claimed that ooplasmic transfer constitutes the first human germline modification. See also inheritable genetic modification.

For more information: [ Technologies >> Other Human Genetic and Reproductive Technologies >> Ooplasmic Transfer ]

Parthenogenesis - a form of reproduction in which the egg cell develops into a new individual without fertilization. It occurs naturally in some lower animals, and experiments have induced the process in mammals. However, there have been no successful human parthenogenesis experiments. It is a potential method to clone women. See also cloning

Precautionary principle - a principle associated with environmental policy that states that measured preventative action should be taken to address a problem when there is a reasonable belief that the situation could get worse. Scientific uncertainty is not an excuse for inaction in a potentially harmful or dangerous situation.

Preimplantation genetic diagnosis and screening (PGD) - a process in which early stage embryos created through in vitro fertilization are tested for certain genetic characteristics. The results of these tests allow prospective parents to make informed decisions about which embryos to implant, and therefore about the traits of the children they might have. It can be used to avoid implanting embryos with conditions that would cause serious disease, but raises questions about what constitutes a serious disease. PGD is most controversial when used to select against clearly non-medical traits, such as sex.  See inheritable genetic engineering and in-vitro fertilization.

For more information: [ Technologies >> Other Human Genetic and Reproductive Technologies >> Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD) ]

Recombinant DNA - biologically active DNA that has been made in the lab by combining segments of DNA from different sources, often from different species. An example would be adding a gene that codes for human insulin into a bacterium. See also genetic engineering.

For more information on the science behind the process visit:
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/R/RecombinantDNA.html

Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee (RAC) - A committee of the National Institutes of Health established in 1973 when the development of recombinant DNA technology instigated public debate over its appropriateness and safety. The RAC was charged with review of human gene transfer experiments, and of research protocols that involved new methodologies or were thought to present new and unusual risks to the public. Its role has been weakened and is presently unclear.

For more information:[ Policies >> US Federal and State Policies >> Federal Regulatory Agencies ]

Reproductive cloning - a process through which a new human is created from the single body cell of its 'parent.' The resulting individual would be essentially an exact genetic duplicate of an already existing or previously existing individual. The scientific process involves removing the nucleus of an embryo and replacing it with the nucleus of an adult cell. An electrical current is applied to simulate fertilization which induces cell division. The resultant embryo is implanted in a woman's uterus to produce a human child. See also somatic cell nuclear transfer and cloning.

For more information: [ Technologies >> Human Cloning >> Reproductive Cloning Basic Science ].

Research cloning (also called therapeutic cloning, or embryo cloning) - A process that is initially like reproductive cloning. However, the clonal embryo produced by somatic cell nuclear transfer is not implanted into a woman's uterus. It is induced to divide until the blastocyst stage where stem cells can be harvested. Some scientists believe that this is the best source of stem cells, because they are from an embryonic source and have the same DNA as the recipient. This latter characteristic could prevent immune system rejection complications. See also somatic cell nuclear transfer and cloning.

For more information: [ Technologies >> Human Cloning >> Research Cloning Basic Science ].

Stem cells - unspecialized cells capable of developing into a variety of specialized cells and tissues. Stem cells can be derived from a variety of tissues. Adult, fetal, placental, umbilical, and embryonic stem cells all have different properties. Adult stem cells can be obtained from the blood, bone marrow, brain, pancreas, and fat of adult bodies. Embryonic stem cells are found in very early embryos, and can be obtained from "supernumerary" or "leftover" embryos donated by couples undergoing in vitro fertilization (IVF) treatment. See also research cloning.

For more information: [ Technologies >> Other Human Genetic and Reproductive Technologies >> Stem Cell Technologies ]

Somatic cell nuclear transfer - A critical step in the creation of cloned embryos, whether those embryos are to be used for research or reproduction. In this process, the nucleus from an egg cell is removed, and replaced with the nucleus from a body (or somatic) cell. The egg now contains the full DNA set from the person who provided the somatic cell. Electrical current can then be used to stimulate the egg cell to divide. See also cloning.

Somatic genetic transfer (also called somatic genetic modification) - a process in which desired genes are introduced into the somatic cells of the body using a viral vector. See also gene therapy, viral vector, and genetic engineering.

For more information: [ Technologies >> Other Human Genetic and Reproductive Technologies >> Somatic Gene Transfer

Sunset legislation - a type of legislation that incorporates an expiration date so that it may be reevaluated at a later date. This allows for policy to be changed as public opinion and need changes.

Techno-eugenics - The new eugenics uses technology as a means to realize a eugenic future. Rather than the blunt methods of sterilization and marriage laws, new eugenicists imagine precise, engineered 'improvements' to the human germline. The term techno-eugenic refers to this fusing of technology and eugenics that is espoused in the rhetoric of the advocates of human cloning and inheritable genetic modification. See also eugenics.

For more information: [ Analysis >> Encouraging Public Acceptance of the New Eugenics ]

Therapeutic cloning - see research cloning.

Twinning (also called blastocyst splitting) - the process of a blastocyst (an early stage of embryo) dividing. When this occurs naturally, twins are produced. Some research have proposed inducing twinning in conjunction with in-vitro fertilization. See also cloning and in-vitro fertilization.

The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) - UNESCO's main objective is to promote world peace through collaborations among nations in the areas of education, science, culture and communication with the ultimate goal of furthering "universal respect for justice, for the rule of law and for the human rights and fundamental freedoms which are affirmed for the peoples of the world, without distinction of race, sex, language or religion..." Currently it has 188 member nations (the USA is not a member.)

For more information: [ Policies >> International Bodies >> UNESCO ].

Viral vector - an engineered virus that is used to introduce foreign genes into cells. Viral vectors are used extensively in gene therapy experiments as the main delivery method for new genes. See also gene therapy and somatic gene transfer.

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