Summary of Traffic Stops Statistics
Jacksonville Police Department
The following report compiles and presents statistical summaries of traffic stops statistics drawn from the NC State Bureau of Investigation database to which each police agency reports their statistics each month. Data in this report cover the period of 2002 through 2018. The data exclude checkpoint stops because such stops are not recorded systematically. The data also include only the driver of the vehicle, excluding any passengers. Passenger information is generally recorded only in the event of an adverse outcome (e.g., search, arrest).
This report provides the following summary statistics:
First is a table providing summary statistics on numbers of stops, searches, contraband hits, and arrests, as well as relevant rates of these outcomes. This is followed by a series of graphics displaying department and officer level data.
| Summary of outcomes | State-wide | JPD |
|---|---|---|
| Stops | 24,980,776 | 247,830 |
| Traffic Safety Stops | 13,365,910 | 158,136 |
| Searches | 763,343 | 9,777 |
| Hits | 280,152 | 3,740 |
| Arrests | 500,040 | 8,954 |
| Arrest From Hit From Search | 105,784 | 2,664 |
| Consent Searches | 346,475 | 4,669 |
| Arrest From Hit From Consent Search | 20,759 | 976 |
| Probable Cause Searches | 264,963 | 2,696 |
| Arrest From Hit From Probable Cause Search | 54,326 | 1,407 |
| Percent Traffic Safety Stops | 53.50% | 63.81% |
| Search Rate Per Stop | 3.06% | 3.95% |
| Hit Rate Per Search | 33.48% | 36.29% |
| Arrest Rate Per Hit | 38.85% | 73.64% |
| Hit-and-Arrest Rate Per Search | 13.86% | 27.25% |
| Hit-and-Arrest Rate Per Probable Cause Search | 20.50% | 52.19% |
| Hit-and-Arrest Rate Per Consent Search | 5.99% | 20.90% |
| Arrest Rate Per Stop | 2.00% | 3.61% |
| Hit-and-Arrest Rate Per Stop | 0.42% | 1.07% |
Numbers at top of the table show raw values; numbers below are the percentages based on the numbers above.
Figure 1 shows the total number of stops per year from 2002-2018. Numbers range from approximately 7,000 (in 2003) to 23,000 (in 2011). There is a slight drop associated with the global pandemic in 2020.
Figure 2 shows the total number of traffic stops by race and gender from 2002-2018. For example, in 2002, roughly 40% of total traffic stops were of white males, roughly 22% of stops were of black males, roughly 9% were of black females, and roughly 20% were of white females. Across the time period, white females surpassed black males in their respective proportion of traffic stops. White males’ share of those stopped decreased slightly, and black females’ share was relatively stable.
Figure 3. Percent of stops for “safety” purposes (speeding, stop sign, DUI, unsafe movement)
Figure 3 shows the percentage of traffic stops that are considered safety-related for each respective race and gender grouping, from 2002-2018. Safety-related spots are composed of stops due to speeding, stop sign violations, DWI, and unsafe movement. Stops for violations other than this are classified as non-safety related. These are composed of non-moving violations such as equipment violations and expired tags. For this reason, non-safety-related stops can be considered to be used as informal criminal investigations. Each race and gender grouping follows a similar trend from 2002-2020. White females and white males have a similar percentage of safety-related stops throughout the time period. Black drivers consistently had a lower percentage of their stops classified as safety-related as compared to white drivers.
Figure 4. Percent of stops resulting in a search, by race-gender category
Figure 4 shows the percent of traffic stops that result in a search for each respective race and gender grouping, from 2002-2018. The Figure indicates that most traffic stops do not result in a search. For all categories except black males, drivers were searched at less than a 6% rate across the time period. Black males were typically searched at the highest rate, ranging from 5 to 15% across the time period. White males had comparable search rates to all female drivers across the time period.
Figure 5. Percent of stops resulting in arrest, by race-gender category
Figure 5 shows the percent of traffic stops that result in an arrest for each respective race and gender grouping, from 2002-2018. Across the board, arrest rates are consistently very low, typically at below 10% for all categories across the time period, with the exception of black males in 2014 and 2016-2018. Black males are arrested at the highest rate, ranging from about 4% to 11%. For the majority of the time period, their arrest rate falls between 5 and 10%. White males had comparable arrest rates to all female drivers across the time period. The arrest rates for these drivers was between 0 and 5%.
Figure 6. Percent of searches resulting in contraband, by race-gender category
Figure 6 shows the percent of searches that result in the finding of contraband for each respective race and gender grouping, from 2002-2018. Note that only black males and white males have sufficient data for the Figure, and their respective data is also incomplete in certain years. Across the time period, there is a clear upward trend in contraband hits per search. In 2002, the rate of contraband discovery was at 20% for white males and 28% for black males, and this steadily increased until 2018, in which contraband was discovered in 41% and 58% of searches, respectively. The percent of searches leading to contraband is extremely similar for each of the race and gender categories, increasing at a similar rate across the time period. The main exception is in 2018, when the contraband hit rate per search dropped sharply for white males, leading to a greater difference between the two groups as compared to other years.
Figure 7. Percent of searches resulting in contraband and arrest, by race-gender category
Figure 7 shows the percent of searches that resulted in the discovery of contraband and an arrest for each respective race and gender grouping, from 2002-2018. Note that only black males and white males have sufficient data for the Figure, and their respective data is also incomplete in certain years. Also note that in many instances, contraband hits do not lead to arrest due to it being found in small amounts. As seen in the Figure, the rate of contraband hit and arrest per search has steadily increased across the time period for all categories. Both groups have maintained similar rates. From 2002 to 2009, 10 to 20% of searches led to contraband and arrest. This can be compared to 2013 to 2018, when contraband and arrest rates did not fall below 30% and were regularly above 40%.
Figure 8. Percent of stops resulting in contraband and arrest, by race-gender category
Figure 8 shows the percent of stops that resulted in the discovery of contraband and an arrest for each respective race and gender grouping, from 2002-2018. The rates are very low for each category. White males, white females, and black females all have rates of less than 2% across the time period. The rates for black males have increased slightly, from 2% of stops in 2002 to 5% of stops in 2018 resulting in contraband and arrest. This significant increase occurs post-2012, as the average contraband and arrest rate per stop is drastically different from the earlier portion of the time period. Overall, for all race and gender categories, traffic stops are overwhelmingly unlikely to result in contraband and arrest.
Figure 9. Black-White Ratio of search rates and arrest rates, for males
Figure 9 compares the search rate and arrest rate of black males and white males from 2002-2018. The search rate ratio is the search rate of black males divided by the search rate of white males, while the arrest rate ratio is the arrest rate of black males divided by the arrest rate of white males. A search rate ratio of 1.0 would indicate that black and white males are both searched in an equal percentage of their respective traffic stops. This similarly applies for the arrest rate ratios. Across the time period, the search rate ratio typically is between 2 and 4, although it does peak at just below 5 in 2018. This means that black males are searched much more frequently than white males across the time period. The arrest rate ratio also is consistently above 1. It is typically lower than the search rate ratio, with the exception of 2016 and 2017. This means that in most years recorded, black males are arrested at a greater rate than white males, but not to the degree that they are disproportionately searched.
Figure 10. Black-White Ratio of search rates and arrest rates, for females
Figure 10 compares the search rate and arrest rate of black females and white females from 2002-2018. The search rate ratio is the search rate of black females divided by the search rate of white females, while the arrest rate ratio is the arrest rate of black females divided by the arrest rate of white females. A search rate ratio of 1.0 would indicate that black and white females are both searched in an equal percentage of their respective traffic stops. Across the time period, the search rate ratio ranges from 1.0 to about 3.2. The arrest rate ratio ranges from 1.0 to just below 3.0. Both ratios change in a relatively similar manner on a year to year basis, which does not hold true in many other departments outlined in these reports. However in certain years, such as 2009, there is still a significant disparity between the search rate ratio and the arrest rate ratio.
Figure 11. Summary of stops by hour over the week: Stops, percent safety-related, percent ending in citation, search, and arrest
Figure 11 displays the number of traffic stops, the percent of safety related stops, the percentage of drivers receiving a citation, the percentage of drivers searched, and the percentage of drivers arrested across the hours of the week. The Figure indicates that there is not much variation between the days of the week in regard to these measures, and instead shows that the variation is seen within the hours of the day. There are a few noticeable trends throughout the week, however. Stops occur most frequently on Friday nights relative to other days at the same time. Arrest rates are highest on Thursday, Saturday, and Sunday during the early morning hours relative to other days at the same time.
Figure 12. Summary of stops by hour over the day: Stops, percent safety-related, percent ending in citation, search, and arrest
Figure 12 displays the number of traffic stops, the percent of safety related stops, and the percent of drivers searched, given a citation, and arrested by hour of day. There are a number of clear trends indicated in the Figure. The frequency of a traffic stop is lowest in the early hours of the morning, from around 3AM to 4AM. The number of traffic stops increases until 8AM, at which the frequency is similar until around 2PM. From 2PM to 4PM stops increase, and then stops decrease until 6PM. Stops once again increase at 6PM until 9PM, at which point the frequency of stops begins to drop again until the low point in the early morning.
The percentages of drivers searched and arrested both have a similar trend across the time of day. Drivers are both searched and arrested at the highest rate in the few hours after midnight, and then these rates of search and arrest decrease dramatically until 5AM. After 5AM, the rate of both search and arrest is at extremely low percentages, and these rates then slowly increase for the remainder of the day.
The percentage of drivers receiving a citation follows an opposite trend of search and arrest rates. The rate of citations given is at its lowest from 8PM to 3AM, and then in the following hours sharply increases. The rate is significantly higher during daytime hours as compared to nighttime hours.
The percent of safety-related stops varies throughout the day, reaching its highest point at 5AM, and then slowly, steadily decreasing until 10PM. Safety-related stops then are maintained at a low frequency until the early morning. At 4AM, the percentage begins to increase.
Figure 13. Hourly breakdown of percent of stops by race-gender category
Figure 13 displays the share of overall stops represented by the respective race and gender categories by hour of day. The Figure indicates that white males make up the highest percentage of stops across the day, at roughly 35% throughout the day. From 4AM to 6AM, white males make up a temporarily greater percentage of those stopped, at over 40%. The Figure also indicates that black males are more likely to be stopped during the nighttime hours directly before and after midnight than they are to be stopped during the daytime. At 3AM, black males reach a high of 29% of those that are pulled over, and by 7AM their share of stops decreases to about 13%, and stays at a lower proportion of stops throughout the daytime hours. Black females make up a relatively consistent share of traffic stops throughout the day, at around 8 to 11%. White females see a significant uptick in their proportion of stops during the daytime hours, nearing the rates of white males during this portion of the day.
Figure 14. Hourly breakdown of percent of stops related to traffic safety, by race-gender category
Figure 14 displays the percentage of stops that are for safety-related purposes for each race and gender category, by hour of the day. Safety-related purposes refer to traffic stops that are meant to prevent moving violations, and effectively keep the road safe. Stops that are not safety-related are often used for investigatory purposes, in which case the officer is generally seeking to conduct an informal criminal investigation of the driver. As evidenced in the Figure, black drivers are less likely to be stopped for safety-related purposes than white drivers throughout the course of the day. In turn, this means that black drivers are more likely to be subjected to investigative stops that are not for moving violations. These stops are most common during the nighttime hours, when the percentage of safety-related stops is lowest. At any given hour of the day, black drivers are significantly more likely to be stopped for a non safety-related purpose than white drivers.
Figure 15. Hourly breakdown of percent of stops resulting in search, by race-gender category
Figure 15 displays the percentage of traffic stops which result in a search for each race and gender category, by hour of the day. Black males are searched at the highest rate regardless of time of day, but the time of day does significantly influence the rate at which they are searched. Search rates of black males are at their lowest from 5AM to 8AM. Search rates then increase for the remainder of the day, and are highest during the hours directly before and after midnight, at between 10 and 15%. White males are searched at a similar rate to female drivers for the majority of the day, with the exception coming during the early morning hours, when their search rates are noticeably higher (but still significantly less than black males). Female drivers also see increased search rates during these early morning hours, although the increase is not as significant as their male counterparts. The Figure also indicates that a majority of stops do not result in a search regardless of race and gender category or time of day.
Figure 16. Hourly breakdown of percent of stops resulting in arrest, by race-gender category
Figure 16 displays the percentage of traffic stops which result in an arrest for each race and gender category, by hour of the day. For all categories, drivers are more likely to be arrested during nighttime hours, specifically the hours directly after midnight. Black males are the most likely to be arrested throughout the course of the day, with arrest rates typically falling between 5 and 10%. White males have comparable rates to female drivers during the majority of the day, and the arrest rates for these groups fall between 0 and 5%. The Figure also indicates that a large majority of stops do not result in an arrest regardless of race and gender category or time of day.
Figure 17. Number of stops by officer
Figure 17 displays the distribution of number of stops by officer across the 2002-2018 time period. All officers displayed have over 100 traffic stops. 161 of the 235 officers included in the data have less than 1000 traffic stops
Figure 18. Percent black of drivers pulled over by officer
Figure 18 displays the percentage of stopped drivers that are black for individual officers, from 2002-2020. The distribution includes officers with greater than 100 traffic stops. For the median officer, 29.51% of stops are of black drivers, while black people only make up 18.5% of the population in the city. This means that a majority of officers are stopping black drivers at a rate disproportionate to their share of the population. This disparity between stop behavior and population data is often greater, with black drivers composing more than 40% of stops for a significant portion of officers. At the far right, the Figure shows that there are 22 officers whose mix of drivers stopped is more than 40% black.
Figure 19. Officer search rates by race
Figure 19 displays the search rates of individual officers for the given race and gender category. The criteria for an officer’s inclusion is 100 or more traffic stops, as well as at least 50 stops of the specified race and gender category, from 2002-2018. In the first graph, the median officer has a search rate of 7.12%, meaning that black male drivers are searched in 7.12% of traffic stops. A significant portion of officers have search rates that are much higher than this median value, meaning that searches occur more often for certain officers in traffic stops involving black males. For white male drivers, the median officer has a search rate of 2.55%. This indicates that the median officer in Jacksonville is searching black males at a higher rate than they are searching white males.
Figure 20. Black-White Ratio of search rates by officer, for males
Figure 20 displays the distribution of black-white male search rate ratios across the officers which meet the criteria. The criteria for an officer’s inclusion is 50 traffic stops of both white males and black males, from 2002-2018. The “Black-white male search rate ratio” can be interpreted as an officer’s search rate of black male drivers divided by their search rate of white male drivers. An racially equitable outcome would therefore be 1, meaning that black and white male drivers are searched in an equal percentage of traffic stops. The median officer instead has a search rate ratio of 2.31, meaning that the median officer searches black male drivers at a higher rate than white male drivers. This is the highest black-white male search rate ratio recorded in these reports. A significant number of officers have search-rate ratios that are much higher than the median, with some searching black male drivers at 5 or more times the rate of white male drivers, and multiple officers searching black males at more than 10 times the rate.
Figure 21. Search rate versus hit rate by officer
Figure 21 presents the hit rates and search rates of individual officers who meet the criteria. As evidenced by the low correlation, there is great variability in both the propensity of individual officers to search drivers and their success in finding contraband. One might expect that when officers have a high search rate but a low hit rate, that their supervisors would advise them to adjust their search rate in order to avoid so many fruitless searches. Similarly, for officers with low search rates but high hit rates, one might expect supervisors to instruct them to conduct more searches because they are being too cautious. Such a learning process would generate relative consistent hit rates; where officers are too high, they would be advised to do more searches, and where too low, to conduct fewer. The Figure shows clearly that this is not happening. Search and hit rates range from low to high, with a very low correlation between the two. Certain officers search drivers at extremely high rates but have very low hit rates, meaning that their threshold of suspicion is likely too low. Other officers search at a much lower rate and have very high hit rates, showing that their threshold of suspicion may be too high. Overall, the Figure shows that officers are not gravitating towards a single common range of hit rates. This suggests that the department does not seem to hold its officers to a common standard of search rate success. Rather, each officer decides for him or herself how aggressive to be in searching, with virtually no guarantee that more searches will lead to lower hit rates, or that fewer searches will be targeted on those most likely to have contraband.